Incidence, Severity, and Economic Cost of Ganoderma Butt Rot of Oil Palm in Ghana

Danyo Gilbert^1,

¹Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Oil Palm Research Institute, Coconut Programme, P. O. Box 245, Sekondi, Ghana-West Africa

Cite this paper:
Danyo Gilbert. Incidence, Severity, and Economic Cost of Ganoderma Butt Rot of Oil Palm in Ghana. World Journal of Agricultural Research. 2026; 14(1):1-9. doi: 10.12691/wjar-14-1-1

Abstract

Ganoderma Butt Rot, an economic disease of the oil palm in south-east Asia and an emerging epidemic in Africa (West, East, and Central Africa), was uncovered in the Eastern Region of Ghana, in 2010. But knowledge gap, coupled with the absence of dedicated-GBR research, allowed the disease to spread steadily, killing infected palms, and endangering the oil palm industry in Ghana. GBR incidence, severity and spread in the Western, Central, and Eastern regions of Ghana, were surveyed quarterly for two consecutive years in selected-commercial oil palm plantations, and small-holder farms belonging to the staff of these commercial plantations. Using the systematic ‘row-by-row walk-through' field survey method, single-point disease assessments were done using Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) with a severity scale of 0 – 4. Results show that the disease incidence for now, is low and endemic in the Eastern Region of Ghana. GBR incidence increased from a low of 6 palms to a high of 29 palms, over the period. Average monthly disease incidence was 1.21 palms and percentage annual disease incidence was 2.90% (or 0.86%/ha/yr). The annual epidemic rate (r) of GBR incidence in Ghana was 0.05 (r=0.05). The putative epidemic threshold was 5.80% (1.72%/ha/yr); epidemic cost was GHC 2 229.86 ($ 202.71) equivalent of fresh fruit bunch loss per hectare per year (FFB/Ha/Yr); and GHC 3 262.73 ($ 296.61) equivalent of crude palm oil loss per hectare per year (CPO/Ha/Yr). Ganoderma butt rot epidemic is predicted in the Western Region, due to the high incidence of coconut-oil palm succession, lack of awareness of the pathogenicity of Ganoderma, and farmer behaviour. This study has arguably provided the first quantitative data (percentage incidence, epidemic rate, economic threshold level, and epidemic cost) on the epidemiology of GBR of oil palm in Ghana, empirical bases for collective advocacy to prevent the disease from assuming epidemic or economic injury proportions in Ghana.

Keywords:
Ganoderma Coconut-Oil Palm Succession Knowledge-gap Economic Cost Ghana

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

References:

[1]	CSIR-OPR Newsletter (202I). Evolution of Oil Palm Industry: CSIR-Oil Palm Research Institute Leads Way. < info@ oilpalmresearch.org>. accessed 15 October, 2025.
[2]	Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA, 2023). Master Plan Study on the Oil Palm Industry in Ghana: MASDAR Report. < [mofa.gov.gh]> accessed 15 October, 2025.
[3]	Rhebergen, T., Fairhurst, T., Zingore, S., Fisher, Myles, Oberthur, T., Whitbread, A. (2016). Climate, soil, and land-use based suitability evaluation for oil palm production in Ghana. European Journal of Agronomy (81); p.1-14.
[4]	Danso, I., Nuertey, B.N., Andoh-Mensah, E, Osei-Bonsu, A, Asamoah, T.E.O., Dwarko, D.A., Okyere-Boateng, G., Marfo-Ahenkora, E & Opoku, A. (2008). Response of oil palm to planting density and water deficit in three climatic zones of southern Ghana. Journal of Ghana Science Association, 10(2), p. 93.
[5]	Danyo, G. (2013a). Commercial Oil Palm Cultivation in Ghana: An Outline. Projournal of Agricultural Science Research, 1(3), p. 22.
[6]	Danyo, G. (2022). Epidemiology, Epidemic Cost and Management of Cape Saint Paul Wilt of Coconut in Ghana. Book Publisher International, UK., 2022.
[7]	Karsten, P. (1881). Enumeratio Boletinearum et Polyporearum Fennicarum, Systemate novo dispositarum. Revue de Mycologie 3, p. 16.
[8]	Moncalvo, J.M., and Ryvarden, L. (1997). A nomenclatural study of Ganodermataceae Donk. – Synopsis Fungorum 11, p. 1.
[9]	Robinson, R.K. (1967). Ecology of Fungi. The English Universities Press Limited, St. Paul’s House, Warwick Lane, London EC 4, p. 28.
[10]	Bhosle, S., Ranadive, K., Bapat, G., Garad, S., Deshpande, G., Vaidya, J. (2010). Taxonomy and Diversity of Ganoderma from the Western parts of Maharashtra (India). Mycosphere 1(3), 249–262.
[11]	Arif, M. S., Roslan, A., and Idris, A. S. (2011). “Economics of oil palm pests and disease and yield losses,” In: Proceedings of the Third MPOB-IOPRI International Seminar: Integrated Oil Palm Pests and Diseases Management, Kuala Lumpur, Convention Centre, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
[12]	Venkatarayan, S. V. (1936). The biology of Ganoderma lucidum on areca and coconut palms. Phytopathology 26, p. 153.
[13]	Susanto, A., Sudharto, P.S., and Purba, R.Y. (2005). Enhancing biological control of basal stem rot disease (Ganoderma boninense) in oil palm plantations. Mycopathologia 192, p. 153.
[14]	Adaskaveg, J.E., Blanchette, R.A., and Gilbertson, R.L. (1991). Decay of date palm wood by white-rot and brown-rot fungi. Canadian Journal of Botany 69, p. 615.
[15]	Schwarze, F.W.M.R., Londsdale, D., and Mattheck, C. (1995). Detectability of wood decay caused by Ustulina deusta in comparison with other tree-decay fungi. European Journal of Forest Pathology 25, p. 327.
[16]	Jong, S.C., and Birmingham, J.M. (1992). Medicinal benefits of the mushroom Ganoderma. Advances in Applied Microbiology 37, p. 101.
[17]	Pornsuriya, C., Sunpapao, A., Srihanant, N., Worapattamasri, K., Kittimorakul, J., Phithakkit, S., and Petcharat, V. (2013). “A survey of diseases and disorders in oil palms of Southern Thailand,” Plant Pathology Journal, 12 (4), p. 169.
[18]	Kandan, A., Bhaskaran, R. B. and Samiyappan, R. C., (2010). Ganoderma – A basal stem rot disease of coconut palm in South Asia and Asia pacific regions. Archives of Phytopathology and Plant Protection. 43 (15), p. 1445.
[19]	Ariffin, D., Idris, A.S., and Singh, G. (2000). Status of Ganoderma in oil palm. In: “Ganoderma Diseases of Perennial Crops” (J. Flood, P.D. Bridge and M. Holderness, eds.), pp 49-68. CAB International, Oxon, UK.
[20]	Danyo, G. (2010). Ganoderma butt rot of Oil Palm. Annual report. Oil Palm Research Institute, Kusi, Ghana.
[21]	Singh, G. (1990). “Ganoderma—the scourge of oil palm in coastal areas,” The Planter, 67 (786), p. 421.
[22]	Tengoua, F. F., and Bakoume, C. (2005). “Basal stem rot and vascular wilt; two threats for the oil palm sector in Cameroon” The Planter, 81, p. 97.
[23]	Flood, J., & Hasan, Y. (2004). “Basal stem rot taxonomy, biology, epidemiology, economic status and control in Southeast Asia and Pacific Islands”, In: Proceedings of the International Conferenceon Pests and Diseases of Importance to the Oil Palm Industry, Fostering Global Cooperation in Instituting Quarantine Shield, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, May 2004.
[24]	Susanto, A. (2009, November). “Basal stem rot in Indonesia. Biology, economic importance, epidemiology, detection and control,”. In: Proceedings of International Workshop on Awareness, Detection and Control of Oil Palm Devastating Diseases, Kuala Lumpur Convention Center, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
[25]	Palanna, K. B., Shreenivasa, K. R., Basavaraj, S. and Narendrappa, T. (2017b). Review of Genus Ganoderma causing Basal Stem Rot (Coconut) and Foot Rot (Arecanut) with Respect to Etiology and Management. Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. App. Sci. 9(4): 1434-1455.
[26]	Hanafi, C.N.A., Idris, M.M., Abdullah, A.S., Hasmah, S. N. A., Mohidin, H., and Rebitanim, N.Z. (2020). GanoCare®Improves Oil Palm Growth and Resistance against Ganoderma Basal Stem Rot Disease in Nursery and Field Trials. Hindawi BioMed Research International Volume 2020, Article ID 3063710, 16 pages.
[27]	Kranz, J. (1990b). Epidemics, their mathematical analysis and modelling: An Introduction. In: Epidemics of Plant Diseases: Mathematical Analysis and Mo deling, 2nd Edn. (J. Kranz, editor). Springer, Berlin, pp.1-11.
[28]	Neher, D.A., & Campbell, C.L. (1994). Nematode communities and microbial biomass in soils with annual and perennial crops. Applied soil ecology, 1(1), 17-28.
[29]	Abdullah, F., Ilias, G. N. M., Nelson, M., Nur Ain Izzati, M. Z., & Umi Kalsom, Y. (2003). Disease assessment and the efficacy of Trichoderma as a biocontrol agent of basal stem rot of oil palms. Research Bulletin Science Putra, p. 1131.
[30]	Tree Crops Development Authority (2026). Producer Price Index. Available at: https://www.tcda.gov.gh.